Introduction

Mr. Rajiv Malhotra established the Infinity Foundation (IF) in 1995[1]. The IF is a non-profit grant giving organization funded through private endowment. The foundation is registered in the state of New Jersey. Its office is located in Princeton, NJ. The IF has no full-time paid staff although Mr. Rajiv Malhotra himself volunteers full-time. The in-house part-time staff is for administrative work only. The scholars and IF advisors are dispersed in academic and research institutions worldwide and work from their locations. The Internet has greatly enhanced international cooperation amongst researchers. The goals of the foundation, its past, current and future projects and announcements are listed in detail on its website.[2]

The IF funds projects in two broad areas: Compassion and Wisdom. Through the Compassion grants the foundation has been able to support numerous charitable projects. It has offered monetary support to help AIDS victims both in the United States and India, funded the Red Cross to aid in relief efforts in Gujarat after the earthquake, funded homeless shelters and animal shelters in the United States to name a few. A complete list of organizations is listed on its website[3].

Through the wisdom grants, the IF strives to create, assemble and disseminate information dealing with philosophy, religion, science and psychology. Further, it conducts and sponsors studies that aim at bridging eastern philosophies and western thought. Grant recipients are offered funds for travel, study, fellowships /scholarships or for the production of a product that supports studies dealing with wisdom.  The IF supports book projects, research studies and publications, conferences and initiatives for new courses[4] in schools and universities. Topics funded by the wisdom grants include contributions of India to world civilization in math, science, technology, philosophy, religion and art; exploration of IndiaÕs role in history; the examination of IndiaÕs role on modern and post-modern literature in the west; the study of Indic contributions to modern psychology and cognitive sciences; IndiaÕs influence on the development of European and Asian languages and linguistics; re-examination of current social conditions of India in light of several years of foreign and colonial occupation and the critique of portrayal of India in American educational materials.

While going through the list of grants the IF has offered since its inception, I noticed that it has shifted from primarily offering compassion grants to now focusing in the area of ÒwisdomÓ. The members of the IF frequently used the word Òthink tankÓ to describe the foundation. From recent projects[5] and after discussions with its members, I learnt that the reason for the current focus on Wisdom studies is that the IF believes there is an urgent need to address the misrepresentation and often under-representation of the Indic civilization in the west[6]. The IF believes that western scholars have routinely used negative stereotypes and in turn disseminated false information[7]. The Indic civilization has made major contributions in the areas of science[8], mathematics[9], philosophy[10], health[11], psychology [12], music, theater and culture. These have often been neglected and sometimes wrongly attributed[13].

In this report, I have documented the efforts of the IF in highlighting Indic contributions to science, particularly on Hinduism and its implication to science. In the ÒConclusionsÓ section, I have offered my own perspectives on several issues discussed in the report. Most of the post-independence contributions of India to science and technology have been well documented by the Indian Government. Hence, the IF has been investigating scientific developments in India from the earliest time for which reliable information is available to pre-independence.

I decided to pose the following questions to the advisors of the IF. What practices and traditions constitute the realm considered scientific? What have the Hindus and Indic traditions in general contributed to modern science? Why is it important to study the traditional knowledge systems (TKS)? Can these practices be applied for the betterment of society today? Is there a scientific basis for rituals and traditions in Hinduism? How does the academic and social background of the advisors of the IF influence their findings?

While discussing the goals and studies of the foundation, I had observed that the members frequently made references to ÒIndic traditionsÓ rather than Indian religions. In an article titled, ÒWhy IndicÓ[14], the founders of the IF have argued that ÒIndic traditionsÓ depicts the aims of the foundation more appropriately as it describes in addition to religions, Indian contributions in science, mathematics, metallurgy, navigation, astronomy and medicine.

Over the past years, I have heard several contradictory arguments about the history of science and technology in India. Indian religions and traditions have been referred to as being ÒirrationalÓ and ÒmysticalÓ [15]. In contrast, in an article by Kumar[16], for example, the history of Indic science has been defined as follows:

        The first nation (to have cultivated science) is India. Over many centuries, all the kings of the past have recognized the         ability of the Indians in all branches of knowledge," wrote Sa`id Al-Andalusi, a leading natural philosopher of the                 eleventh century Muslim Spain (Salem and Kumar, 1991, p. 11). The emphasis in the above quotation is not on India         being "the first nation to cultivate science. It is on the fact that the European scholars, as late as the eleventh-century,         thought India as a leader in science and technology.

Methodology

I have classified studies funded by the IF in the area of ÒHinduism and ScienceÓ into three distinct categories. Please note that these categories are for theoretical purposes only and there might be an overlap between them. Those practices derived directly from the Indic texts (e.g., Vedas) are classified in the first category. Religious traditions, rituals and other practices such as Hindu architecture, have been classified in category 2)

1. That which is directly manifested in Hinduism (ÒThe inner sciencesÓ gate as defined in the IF Mandala website).
2. Practices and traditions inspired by Hinduism.
3. Totally secular science and technology that have thrived during Indic (and Hindu) history, pointing to the secular progress of Hindus (e.g., certain Traditional Knowledge systems).
   
   

In spring 2003, I have interviewed several advisors of the IF, including Rajiv Malhotra and members of the advisory board including Susheila Bhagat[17], Sanjay Garg[18], Jayant Kalawar, Sankrant Sanu[19] and Krishnan Ramaswamy. In my first couple of meetings, I learnt about the foundation and its activities, while in later meetings and through emails, I was able to address my specific questions. I emailed a questionnaire to several scientists associated with the IF in order to clarify their role in the IF projects. Dr. Stuart Sovatsky[20] has been particularly helpful with his insights. Finally, I had a discussion with Dr. Gary Tubb[21], Dharam Hinduja Senior Lecturer in Sanskrit teaching and Indic research at Columbia University. As an independent scholar and observer, not associated with the IF, his thoughts have been particularly valuable.

Efforts of the Infinity Foundation

A vital concern amongst the advisors to the If is the fact that studies of the history of science in India are poorly publicized and sometimes unpublished. In one of my interviews with Mr. Rajiv Malhotra, he described the aims of the IF as follows, ÒThe IF would like to meet the standard of Joseph Needham, who documented the history of science and technology in ChinaÓ. The IF plans to recompile and organize materials into (i) a set of almost 20 volumes, one per major topic in science, and (ii) a single-volume alphabetical encyclopedia. It hopes to also develop subsidized editions to be distributed in schools and colleges in India. Through grants and contributions, the IF supports book projects, journal articles and conferences. Dr. D.P.Agrawal[22], an accomplished scientist and advisor of the IF, has led these efforts. He has done pioneering research in the area of Traditional Knowledge systems. He is also the editor of the Outer Knowledge Gate of the ÒMandalaÓ website hosted by the IF[23].

It is important to note that most of the discoveries and studies describing the history of science are not directly the findings of the advisors of the IF but are done by third party scholars. On my enquiry, Mr. Rajiv Malhotra said that these external scholars are specialized in their respective fields and hold advanced degrees and prominent academic/research positions. Many advisors and scientists associated with the IF are Indian, India-based, at the National Institutes of Advanced Studies, other Indian universities and technical institutions.

Mr. Malhotra pointed out that within the context of the history of science, the IF prefers to endorse and fund studies conducted and validated by scientists rather than by religious or language scholars. The first category of studies the IF is compiling are only those that are supported by physical and archeological evidence and be validated and not based merely on linguistic or oral evidence.

Most of the scholars involved in IFÕs TKS projects define themselves as secular and not as practicing Hindus. I noticed that the majority of studies conducted by these scholars could be grouped within the third category (secular science and technology). Further, the editors involved in these studies come from diverse backgrounds and work from India, the USA and Europe[24].

The IF believes that a study of the history of science is particularly valuable in modern day India as there is much that can be learnt and applied. Many of the books, studies and conferences sponsored by the IF have clearly illustrated its efforts in this topic[25]. Further, they believe that wisdom gained from TKS can be put to use in the future in India and the rest of the world[26]. Finally, the revival of TKS can be economically effective in developing countries[27].

The IF hopes that through a compilation of existing data in science and technology and dissemination through books, seminars, websites, articles and films it can globalize the history of science[28]. The advisors of the IF are concerned with implementation of intellectual property rights in the transfer of ideas and technology from India[29]. Finally, the IF hopes that awareness of IndiaÕs innovative and creative past will inspire the current and future generations of Indians to learn and innovate.

In order to obtain further evidence to evaluate misrepresentation of Indic contributions to science, I decided to enquire with scientists within the IF. In a detailed email reply, Dr. Sovatsky elaborated as follows:

    Indian sages addressed what the west calls "philosophical" or "theological" issues, such as the mind-body
    problem or the limits of linguistic meaning/knowledge, ontological matters of space, matter and temporality, and the
    liminal realm or "near-death experience" via meditative empiricism that combines "scientific objectivity" with
    "spiritual subjectivity" in a way that brings "mysticism" (as it is defined by western religion) to the level of "scientific
    precision." This is Adhyatma-Vidya, "inner-science of Subjectivity.

That yogic and Buddhist methods, long used in India as Òsubjective philosophical toolsÓ, now pass muster in western laboratories (e.g., EEG, EKG, GSR, Salivary Immunoglobin A studies) gives us empirical evidence of some degree of what this "subjective-objectivity" delivers in terms of "relaxation" or "healthy stress-reduction." However, this is as far as western science can go, at this time. (Yet, Vendanta clearly influenced the scientific theories of Schrodinger, Heisenberg, Prigogine, Pribam, and Arthur Young, and IF research helps make this more widely known.)

The IF projects try to show the further philosophical (ÒspiritualÓ) implications of such lab findings, and also re-situate these "stress-reducing" practices in their indigenous Indic context, via scholarly textual exegesis and translation of Sanskrit terms into ever more apt English terms. For, eurocentric and bowdlerizing forces of mass-distribution of these otherwise very demanding practices (full-time, decades of practice indigenously) have stripped them down, even to the point of cultural piracy, as in "Christian centering prayer" appropriated from Vipassana and Vedanta. IF research traces the history of such appropriations to reveal their Indic origins (FR. T. Merton's & FR. B. Griffith's debt to Indic Adhyatma-Vidya "Inner Sciences", for example).

For decades, and still today, the deeper aspects of yoga (Kundalini, Chakras, tantric hormonal alchemy) have been particularly tainted by an impugned "flakiness" or "new age" dismissability as per mainstream western science. Ridicule would meet any scientist who might want to study Kundalini or Chakras in human subjects. This is eurocentricism at its banal worst and powerfully so. Grants for such research are never even written, certainly never funded, out of ignorance.

Colonialistic pressures ("Macauleyism" etc) have tainted Indic Adhyatma Vidya in India as well ("superstitious" "backward") e.g., in 1985, I presented on tantra in India and was laughed at by indian journalists "Why do you waste your mind dwelling on inner emptiness!" they scoffed. Thus, the IF also sends western researchers to Indian conferences to share their findings and to help stimulate Indian research and reverse a sense of self-dismissiveness induced by the colonialist mindset.


I. Direct relevance of Hinduism in Science 

Inner Sciences (adhyatma-vidya[30]):

Under this topic, the IF covers Indic and cross-cultural philosophy, epistemology, ethics, linguistics, psychology and mind science, spirituality, meditation, yoga, and other models for and techniques of personal transformation.

The IF has done a number of projects and studies in the ÒInner SciencesÓ. These are described in detail in its website[31]. The IF has funded numerous conferences in India and in the US on Indian psychology. In addition, it has also sponsored courses in non-dualism philosophies at various universities, offered financial support for papers and book projects and sponsored research trips to India[32].

I was interested in learning how the IF has specifically contributed to the research of scientists associated with the IF. In response, Dr. Sovatsky said, ÒMy Foundation-sponsored research focuses on raising the level of discourse that Western Clinical Psychology and Developmental Psychology has begun regarding Indian theories of identity/consciousness, lifespan development, the nature of family, Hatha Yoga and meditation. The level of discourse in the West on these topics has been quite low, in the opinion of many scholars. For example, Òpop psychologyÓ has reduced and distorted the deep and complex adhyatma-vidya (Inner Science) of Tantra Yoga to the point of travesty. Profound philosophical aspects of meditation have been lost in the repackaging of meditative practices as (mere) Òstress-reducers.Ó Even Òtranspersonally-orientedÓ clinicians who want to specialize in "integrating" Eastern and Western Psychology are largely unaware that Sanatana Dharma includes the lifespan ashrama developmental model of Òstages of maturationÓ or the grihasta view of family life and relationships. They think Eastern theories cover mainly ÒnonegoicÓ states of consciousness.

My work (and that of many other scholars and several clinicians) with Infinity Foundation has been to rectify such limited and, too often, distorted understandings among Western Psychologists. Via colonialist pressures over the centuries in India, similar work is (even) required in the Motherland. Thus, the Foundation has sponsored professional conference presentations in India, too, by Westerners (and knowledgeable Indian Psychologists) to ÒreintroduceÓ these traditions to Indian Psychologists and physicians and show their clinical relevance to problems of stress and family breakdown in a modernizing India.

Likewise, my work focuses on upgrading what the 18 million Americans who now "do Yoga" (and their quick-course trained instructors) know about this vast tradition. A recent paper of mine posted at the Infinity website is the syllabus of a graduate-level course I will teach in 2003 to address this problem.

The Foundation also funded a conference I convened on the use of Yoga and meditation in worldwide prison reform and criminal rehabilitation (the first ever, on this topic), areas in dire need of the highly efficacious adhyatma vidya psychologies and techniques.Ó

The IF believes that a significant part of recent western psychology is drawn from Hindu and Buddhist thought. It is particularly concerned by an erosion of references to Indian sources in several western philosophical models[33]. Mr. Rajiv Malhotra had the following to add, ÒThe IF thinks that there should be a renegotiation of what constitutes discovery. There should be a sharing of royalty between the original researchers and the westerners who rediscovered them and relocated then in modern vernacular. It thus constitutes a shared discovery. To claim that the western discoverer brings an honor to the discovery of another is a denigrating statement. The IF believes that everyone must share the discoveries and there must be royalties in all directions.

I believe that there are about forty western thinkers who are using ideas from Indian psychology (Note: This is a work in progress that he is currently investigating). I am quite saddened that religion scholars proficient in Sanskrit are not interested in these Indian psychology concepts and are not documenting it, and therefore the western plagiarism is going unchallenged. In conferences on cognitive science and neurology I see only western claims presented as ÒoriginalÓ and no references to Indic psychology.Ó

The IF plans to publish three volumes exclusively dedicated to the inner sciences. While the first one would contain Indic and Hindu contributions to the inner sciences, the second volume would consist of textual references and notes to Indian texts in western psychology models. The third volume would contain western scientific validations of these Indic models. It hopes to have these volumes completed by 2006. Additionally, it has already commissioned a major textbook, intended for US and Indian colleges, on the meditation systems of the world, that includes individual chapters on the systems based on Hindu, Buddhist, Jainism, Christian, Islamic and Jewish traditions.




II. Practices and Traditions inspired by Hinduism 

In this classification, I have classified practices and traditions inspired by Hinduism such as the philosophy of quantum physics, linguistics[34], Ayurveda and Yoga. The IF has sponsored numerous studies in these fields[35].

In our class discussions, the role of bodily language and rituals as knowledge transmitters has been discussed extensively[36]. I wanted to learn how advisors of the IF perceived rituals and oral traditions. In my interview with several advisors of the IF, I learnt that the advisors did not have a singular position of rituals. But, they all agreed that once the IF is done documenting the current set of studies, in the future it would be willing to investigate the effects of rituals as it views them as knowledge transmitters of folk science. While classifying rituals as traditional knowledge systems, the editors of the Outer knowledge gate have explained the following on the Mandala website[37], ÒThe non-literate folk science preserves the wisdom gained through millennia of experience, direct observation, and has been transmitted by word of mouth.Ó Dr. Sovatsky, co-editor of the inner sciences frameset of the IF[38] shared his views of rituals. He said, ÒVarious Yoga Asanas emerged from the Elephanta / Ellora cave rituals of ecstatic dance. Yoga asanas have recently been scientifically proven to promote cardiac health. Perhaps even the Vedic soma rituals involved activities that may have induced the endogenous secretion of Pineal Melatonin and salivary Immunoglobin-A. Via the ingestion of Seratonin-uptake inhibiting herbals, high level brain/ endocrine functioning may have been induced. Mantra-japa of ÒTMÓ has already passed muster in western lab studies, even the so-called ÒMaharishi effectÓ of ritualistic group meditation has been published in 600 studies, at 200 universities including Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, Lancet, Science (the Journal), and the Journal of Crime and Justice.Ó

III. Secular science and technology

While examples discussed in this category are not directly related to Hinduism, it is important as it describes the evolution of secular science and technology within a Hindu society. Traditional Knowledge systems constitute much of IndiaÕs scientific heritage. Please note that some of the projects described under TKS can also be classified in category II (Practices inspired by Hinduism). But as a category, I found it more appropriate to describe views of the IF on TKS here. The following is an excerpt from the IF website describing TKS and its role in modern day India:

ÒIndia's intellectual resources are not limited to (though they are limited by) its 'Indic Genius' doubting intellectual elite. Today, there are Indian economists, social developers, and scholars who are working hard to revitalize many TKS. Resources for research and teaching of India's Traditional Knowledge Systems should be made available for the following reasons:

1. India has amongst the best cases for successful revival of TKS: It has a rich heritage still intact in this area. It has the largest documented ancient literature relevant to TKS. It has the intellectual resources to appreciate this and to implement this revival.

2. India's scientific heritage, besides its philosophical and cultural legacy, needs to be properly understood. The aim is not inspired by chauvinism, but to understand the genius of Indian civilization better. This would overhaul the current assessment of India's potential.

3. To correct the portrayal of the History of Science, the History of Ideas, mainstream accounts of World History, anthropology and culture. This entails emphasizing to scholars and educators that TKS should be included, especially India's achievements and contributions to world science that have been very significant but unappreciated.

To include Traditional Knowledge Systems in economic planning, because they are eco-friendly, sustainable, labor rather

than capital intensive, and more available to the masses. This should be done in parallel with the top down 'modern'

scientific development using westernized 'globalization', as the two should co-exist and each should be used based on

its merits.Ó

As an example for a TKS study and its implications, I would like to quote a passage from the following book proposed by Rima Hooja[39], sponsored by the IF. It recognizes the role of TKS and describes how revival of IndiaÕs Hydraulic systems can be effectively used in modern day India. ÒMany of traditional and /or local systems of water-collection, storage, and development and management of water-resources, unfortunately, fell into disuse with the onset of 'modernisation' during the colonial period. For instance, during the 17th century AD, Bengal's traditional system of overflow irrigation proved an efficient system that not only enriched the soil but also controlled malaria, since the fishes that automatically entered the inundated fields fed on parasites and mosquito larvae etc. The system came to an end after the advent of the British. Elsewhere too, the traditional methods were over-shadowed, reduced in status, or openly discouraged due to the march of 'Western' technology. The situation did not alter with the coming of Indian Independence, and the process has continued into the late 20th Century, with a basic reliance on big dams, inter-basin transfers and surface transport of water through canals and watercourses.

Fortunately there has been a revival of interest in traditional water systems in recent years, both for theoretical and practical purposes, especially by development activists (including organisations like the CSE, Alwar's Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), etc. and people like Anna Hazare etc), scientists, environmentalists and many others associated with the cause of sustainable development. Issues emerging from the debate on environmental protection and community empowerment have resulted in a strong need to have a fresh look at these older and time tested practices and utilize their benefits for meeting the present day needs of rural and urban areas.

While such work has led to the partial documentation and, in cases, modified revival, of some of the traditional water-harvesting and watershed development practices, India's long history in the field of hydraulic engineering, water-related architecture, water resource management and traditional knowledge systems needs a fuller study, from a wider historical perspective. It is with this aim in mind that the present project has been formulated. (One may also add here that relatively less is known about ancient hydraulics and water-related technology of India than is the case for ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Europe, etc. My proposed work will, thus, attempt a brief, comparative, global perspective on the history of hydraulics as well).

The IF has conducted several studies in the area of outer sciences that can be classified within this category of secular science and technology. These include, Civil Engineering, Metallurgy, textiles, shipping and ship building, mathematics, logics and linguistics and several folk sciences[40]. Since the IF is currently investigating Indic contributions to science, before Indian independence, I did not find any IF sponsored studies addressing some of the recent controversies. (e.g., the Narmada controversy or the Ayodhya controversy). In my opinion, while studying the applicability of TKS in modern India, one must also keep in mind IndiaÕs current economic, political and social systems. Hence, while the IF is doing an important job documenting TKS practices and traditions, the agencies in India involved in the implementation of these practices (not related to the IF) must keep these other factors (social, economic and political) in mind.


Conclusions:

The role of western academicians in the representation of Hinduism is particularly critical given the dearth of similar institutions of religious studies in India. Universities in the west have pioneered studies in Hinduism and through research papers and college courses, current and future generation of students can greatly enhance their knowledge of the religion and its practices. But, given the complexities involved (the definition of ÒHinduismÓ is still being contested!), it has not been an easy task. Another important issue is that of the insider/outsider to the religion (ÒWho speaks for Hinduism?Ó). Other major religions including Christianity and Judaism, have established schools or theological seminaries sometimes affiliated with universities, where academic and scholarly studies have been carried out. The lack of such institutions to represent Hinduism from an ÒinsidersÓ view puts greater burden on universities to accurately represent Hindu thoughts and practices. I believe that organizations such as the IF, constituted by practicing Hindus, can complement studies done in universities.

An important goal of the IF has been to raise the awareness of Indic practices and traditions, both in the west and in India. Through web forums like Sulekha[41] and through its own website, the IF advisors have quite successfully reached out to a very large audience. The inclusion of the IF as one of the sites representing Hinduism in New York in the ÒHinduism HereÓ class, clearly endorses the impact of the IF in Indic and Hinduism studies.

From my discussions with advisors and scientists associated with the IF, I am convinced that the IF does not see itself as a political organization or promote the Hindutva organizations. The advisors of the IF frequently compare it with other minority organizations such as the Japan Foundation[42] or the China Foundation[43]. The IF has adopted strict standards of scholarly argumentation and recruited well-respected researchers and scientists in conducting its studies. Dr. Sovatsky had the following to add, ÒUse of scholarly findings for Hindutva agendas has been eschewed by the IF. At the Waves Conference[44], Mr. Malhotra spoke against such usage at a plenary session, for example. Scholarship, not politics, is the focus of the IF.Ó

Dr. Tubb pointed out an important aspect while taking into consideration scholarly publications of Indic contributions to science from certain scholars from India. He said, ÒThere has been a general tendency amongst many Indian scholars to prove that the science that India had many centuries ago is same as modern European science. This obscures real strengths of ancient Indian sciences. The methods used in these studies are unreliable and hence have been counter-productive towards truly representing Indic contributions in science. This has also further obscured genuine contributions from other Indian scholars.Ó However, IF has explicitly wanted to stay away from these tendencies, and has wanted to differentiate itself from other Indian groupsÕ approaches.

From my interviews and discussions with members of the IF, I learnt that in its compilations documenting the history of Indic science and technology, the IF does not consider studies that are not supported by physical or archaeological evidence. Grant proposals are reviewed by several members of the IF advisory board before being accepted. But in my opinion, many a time, shoddy methodologies can go undetected and the IF must be very careful in choosing studies it wishes to include in its compilations.

From several studies on Eurocentrism and after my discussions with IF advisors and Dr. Tubb, I believe that the IF is right in that many of Indic contributions in science is not well known to the general public and there has been a bias while studying IndiaÕs role in the history of science. Further, the category of ÒscienceÓ is sometimes quite blurry and is constantly being redefined. In recent times, a very strong scientific basis has been established for ÒLucid DreamingÓ and ÒMindfulness MediationÓ that in the past were thought to be purely mystical. As shown in a recent editorial article in the New York Times by the Dalai Lama, there is much that can be gained from these practices[45]. I believe that a very important contribution of the IF is in promoting studies of the ÒInner SciencesÓ as a scientific category. In debates over ÒJeffrey Kripal's Kali's ChildÓ to Eurocentrism, the IF has come under severe criticism by several western scholars[46]. This has sometimes sidelined some very important contributions the IF has made in the area of Indic contributions to science.